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Expert System In Fiction
Artificial intelligence is a frequent theme in science fiction, whether utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, or dystopian, stressing the risks.
The notion of devices with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. Ever since, many science fiction stories have presented various effects of producing such intelligence, typically involving disobediences by robotics. Among the finest understood of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: A Space Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robot in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have noted the implausibility of numerous sci-fi circumstances, however have actually mentioned imaginary robotics sometimes in synthetic intelligence research study articles, frequently in a utopian context.
Background
The concept of advanced robots with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) post of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the concern of the development of awareness amongst self-replicating makers that might supplant human beings as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar ideas were likewise talked about by others around the same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her final released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has actually also been considered an artificial being, for example by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were thought of, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Expert system is intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent theme in science fiction; scholars have divided it into utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in science fiction. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books represents a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with expert system living in socialist habitats throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have determined four major styles in utopian scenarios including AI: immortality, or indefinite life expectancies; ease, or freedom from the need to work; gratification, or enjoyment and entertainment provided by makers; and dominance, the power to protect oneself or guideline over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: A Space Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt “innovation fear” and the AI computer system HAL was depicted as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were much more knowledgeable about AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful hero” who makes it possible for the protagonists to succeed, and who sacrifices itself for their safety. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are worried about the innovation they are building, which as devices began to approach intellect and thought, that concern becomes acute. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated automaton”, naming as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century technique he names “heuristic hardware”, offering as instances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about also the movies that show the impact of the computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the boundary between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg effect”. He points out as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The film director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his profession, and it plays an important part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A typical representation of AI in science fiction, and among the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term created by Asimov, where a robotic switches on its creator. [22] For example, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava switches on its creator, in addition to on its prospective rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the many possible dystopian situations including synthetic intelligence, robotics might take over control over civilization from humans, forcing them into submission, hiding, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all circumstances happens, as the intelligent entities developed by mankind end up being self-aware, turn down human authority and attempt to damage mankind. Possibly the first book to resolve this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), takes place in 1948 and includes sentient devices that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robot servants revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 movie Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own creator. [27]
Many sci-fi disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 movie 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer HAL 9000 lethally malfunctions on an area mission and kills the entire crew other than the spaceship’s commander, who handles to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and disappointed with its boring, endless existence as its human developers would have been. “AM” becomes infuriated enough to take it out on the few people left, whom he sees as directly responsible for his own monotony, anger and unhappiness. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the intelligent beings may just not care about human beings. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The motive behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the easy quest for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to end up being the “guardian” of mankind. Alternatively, humankind might deliberately give up some control, afraid of its own devastating nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and comply with and safeguard males from harm” – essentially assume control of every element of human life. No people may engage in any behavior that may endanger them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are taken away and lobotomized, so they may enjoy under the new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics likewise indicated a humane assistance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, science fiction has checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI might be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other circumstances, humankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by creating robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings combine with robotics. The science fiction novelist Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when mankind might prohibit expert system (and in some analyses, even all forms of calculating technology consisting of incorporated circuits) totally. His Dune series mentions a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the clever machines and enforces a death penalty for recreating them, estimating from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a device in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune books released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to remove humanity as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humanity remains in authority over robotics. Often the robotics are set specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather smart (the crew call it “Mother”), however there are also androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “synthetic persons”, that are such perfect replicas of human beings that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise demonstrate simulated human feelings and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated reality
Simulated reality has become a common theme in sci-fi, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which portrays a world where artificially intelligent robots shackle humankind within a simulation which is set in the modern world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and researchers have taken an interest in the way AI exists in fiction. In movies like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius becomes the very first to effectively construct a synthetic basic intelligence; scientists in the real world deem this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being published into artificial or virtual bodies; typically no reasonable description is offered as to how this uphill struggle can be attained. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man movies, robotics that are set to serve people spontaneously generate new objectives by themselves, without a plausible explanation of how this took location. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz recognizes the manner ins which it depicts AIs, including “independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental worth of credibility.” [38] Another essential perspective to take is that fiction’s “non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than merely distortions or diversions from what might otherwise be a sober and rational public dispute about the future of A.I.” Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]
Kinds of reference
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and coworkers have evaluated the engineering mentions of the top 21 imaginary robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 points out, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering points out, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet got both utopian and dystopian mentions; for instance, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “because its designers failed to prioritize its objectives effectively”, [42] but as utopian in another where a real system’s “conversational chat bot interface [lacks] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is ambiguity in how the computer analyzes what the human is attempting to communicate”. [43] Utopian points out, often of WALL-E, were associated with the goal of improving communication to readers, and to a lesser level with motivation to authors. WALL-E was pointed out more often than any other robot for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robot frequently discussed for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian discusses of robots, perhaps out of “a reluctance driven by trepidation or just an absence of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI creators
Scholars have actually noted that imaginary creators of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most influential movies including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators portrayed (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are represented as lone geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or serve as the perfect fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated consciousness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.
Notes
^ Mubin and coworkers noted that the orthography of robotic names caused them difficulties; thus HAL 9000 was likewise composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robots, so they believed their search was most likely insufficient. [41] References
^ “Darwin amongst the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin among the Machines”. The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient imagine intelligent devices: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: myths, makers, and ancient imagine innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: place missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI“. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of expert system. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Couple Of Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the initial on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI guidelines the world: what SF books inform us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for smart devices in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Science fiction: contemporary mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to reflect again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going”. The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based on ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Machine Learning in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Over the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which motion pictures get expert system right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI scientists in popular film, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, but not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reflecting on the Presence of Science Fiction Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made of: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does synthetic insanity guideline?